Accounting of ancient manuscripts exported from Constantinople. Venice. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Manucius printing house. Work with ancient manuscripts. Venice. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
In the later half of the 15th century, the rewriting of ancient authors became a common occurrence. All kinds of works were not only copied, but also reproduced. «Nine» comedies by Aristophanes were published in 1498; Thucydides, Sophocles, and Herodotus in 1502; «Greek History» by Xenophon and Euripides in 1503; and Demosthenes in 1504. In 1509, Plutarchs minor works were released.
During that time, it is conceivable that Hieromonk Macarius, who later established a printing house in Obod, near Cetinje, studied at the Academy of Manucius and continued to carry on transcribing ancient manuscripts practice.
Manucius published Plato in 1513, dedicating it to Pope Leo X de Medici (15131521). It is unusual to dedicate an edition of a pagan author to the head of the Christian Church, especially considering that Platos work contradicts the foundations of the entire Christian doctrine. However, this apparent contradiction only holds true at first glance. In reality, the Roman popes were distanced from Christianity. They supported the practice of rewriting history and introducing antiquity to Europe, albeit in their own interpretation.
Destruction of ancient manuscripts. Venice. After the ancient manuscripts were rewritten, all the originals were destroyed to hide the forgery. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Pindar, Isychius, and Athenaeus published works in 1514. Late in his life, Manucius published the previously unpublished «Septuagint»; it was printed posthumously in 1518.
Venice. Aldo Manucius at work. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Creating antiquity a renewed sense, in 1502 Manucius established a community called «Hellenists,» as a part of his «New Academy». The academys regulations were written in Greek, members were required to communicate in Greek, and their names were Hellenized, along with their official titles. The New Academy members comprised, among others, Erasmus of Rotterdam and the Englishman Thomas Linacre.
After Manucius passing, his heirs took up his mantle and received significant demand alongside with generous funding from influential figures. They carried on his legacy with equal enthusiasm and printed the first editions of Pausanias, Strabo, Aeschylus, Galen, Hippocrates, and Longinus, thereby playing a significant role in the development of the newly established classic literature.
Analysis of ancient manuscripts exported from Constantinople. Venice. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Among other publications, Manuciuss Printing press produced Bembos «Azolan Conversations,» Polizianos complete works, Polyphilus «Hypnerotomachia,» Dantes «Divine Comedy,» Petrarchs poems, early Christian-era Latin poets collections, Pliny the Youngers letters, Giovanni Pontanos poems, Jacopo Sannazzaros «Arcadia,» Quintillion, Valerius Maximus, and Erasmus «Sententia.»
Normally, the print run across each edition was approximately 200500 copies, although there were occasional deviations. For instance, Virgils edition was reprinted in 1501 with a larger print run of 1,000 copies, which was intended specifically for the European royal courts aristocracy.
Manucius Torresanos father-in-law owned the second Venetian printing company founded by Nicolas Jenson, who was also a major publisher. Consequently, the two families merged, resulting in two major publishing ventures under one shared name. On Manucius editions, both Aldus and Asolanus were mentioned in the title pages in tandem. After his demise in 1515, Torresano and his sons sustained the business until Manucius kids came of age. The «Dolphin and Anchor» emblem, accompanied by the motto «Hasten Slowly,» emphasized the rewriting of the worlds history «Great Project» precise execution. It remained within the Alda house until the owners third generation when production ceased.
Venice. The Сlown At the Сarnival, the Picture is Freely Available
During the following popes reigns, ancient books were actively published:
Alexander VI Borgia (Boruch), 14921503, born 1431, nephew of Pope Calixtus III Borgia (15551558);
Julius II (Giuliano della Rovere), 15031513, born 1443, nephew of Pope Sixtus IV (14711484, Francesco della Rovere), patron of the Medici;
Leo X Medici, 15131521, born 1475. The last pope who saw Western Europe become fully Catholic;
Clement VII de Medici, 15231534, born 1478, cousin of Pope Leo X de Medici;
Paul III (Alessandro Farnese), 15341549, born 1468, brother of Pope Alexander VI Borgias mistress.
Despite their enmity and hatred towards each other, these popes had similar mentalities and lifestyles. While their beliefs remain unclear, based on their actions, its most likely that they werent adherents of Christianity, but were instead supporters of a certain anti-Christian school of thought. Their main focus was on their own power and profit. They were unreserved in exposing each others faults and carrying out thorough investigations of the committed crimes.
It raises the question whether individuals like them, who were appointed by politics to write the worlds history, were honest in doing so.
Andalusian Arab philosopher Averroes (11261198). Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Chapter 4. Alexander and the Void
Alexander the Great. Artistic reconstruction by the author..
Most of the works of antiquity are focused on events and geographical regions that currently comprise India, which hints at the notion that this region served as the focal point of the worlds civilization in ancient times.
Among all of ancient authors works, the description of Alexander the Greats campaigns holds the most significance and importance for us. The general assumption is that Alexander the Great led his famous military campaign from the present-day southern Balkans region through the realm of the Persian Empire to India, thus reaching the purported «the earths end.»
However, I aim to demonstrate that Alexanders march was in fact from the East to the West.
Alexander the Great in Africa. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
Did Alexander reach «the earths end» during his campaign? Yes, that is correct. Based on the account of chroniclers, Alexander encountered no resistance from enemy troops or powerful states, but rather a vast wilderness: his army found itself in places where there was nothing but wild beasts, at the very edge of the world, on the «outer ocean shores».
The ancient authors recount sightings of incredibly tall individuals after weeks of traveling. Alexander was pleased, believing he had discovered a worthy opponent. Subsequently, scouts were sent out, and they soon returned with a remarkable findings, several hairy giants captured by them. Unfortunately, they were all gorillas. One may wonder if this description of Alexander discovering «the earth ends,» does, in fact, refer to India.
Alexander is in Africa. Artistic reconstruction by the author.
According to the narrative that has, traditionally, been indoctrinated in us by authors from Britain and, generally, Europe, we are expected to believe that the ancient chroniclers describe Alexanders expedition into what is now India, wherein they explicitly depict a pristine wilderness which, allegedly, lacks inhabitants, kingdoms, yet possesses an abundance of savage animals, such as gorillas in the jungle being situated between modern-day Indus and Ganges rivers. Supposedly, the army led by Alexander arrived at the banks of the Ganges. The soldiers reportedly decided to retreat for a lack of a worthy opponent and resources to conquer. However, this claim may have been more plausible to the 19th or early 20th century readers who did not have a complex understanding of historical events.